Bolivia

People

Bolivia is both a transit and destination country for human trafficking, with La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba serving as critical hotspots due to links between trafficking, illegal mining and migrant smuggling. Victims, including Bolivians and foreign nationals, are often recruited through employment and modelling agencies or social networks. Forced labour in domestic work, mining and ranching is prevalent, while forced criminality and sex trafficking increasingly involve foreign nationals, particularly from Venezuela and Haiti. There is also evidence of organ trafficking, involving major international criminal groups such as the Venezuelan group Tren de Aragua. Organized crime networks, including international groups, operate within Bolivia, and there are reports of state actors’ involvement. Legal action has led to convictions and repatriations, but legislative gaps persist, particularly with regard to forced disappearances.

Bolivia functions as an origin and transit country for human smuggling, though the scale remains limited. Smuggling routes are diverse, primarily involving people travelling from Venezuela, Colombia and Peru through Bolivia and Chile toward the United States. Bolivia’s role in southward migration has diminished with the stabilization of the crisis in Venezuela. Criminal networks are active, including foreign actors, such as the possible presence of the Tren de Aragua. Limited border controls contribute to smuggling, and there have been reports of government involvement and external facilitation. Increasing enforcement has led to harsher conditions for migrants.

Evidence suggests that foreign actors, particularly Colombians and Venezuelans, are involved in extortion activities in Bolivia, with Colombians being especially active due to ties with drug trafficking. Gota a gota loans, a notable loan-sharking practice that involves lending small sums at high interest rates, are often sourced from drug proceeds. Bolivia’s informal economy contributes to the prevalence of these risky financial arrangements, but limited reporting and investigation obscure the true scale and scope of the market.

Trade

Bolivia is primarily a transit country for arms trafficking, with weapons originating from the United States and moving toward Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, Argentina and Peru. A smaller number of firearms remain in the country. Weapons are accessed through online platforms, the darknet and encrypted messaging apps. Recent seizures include high-calibre firearms, rifles and ammunition, often linked to drug operations. Authorities have intercepted shipments at the Peru–Bolivia and Chile–Bolivia borders. Operations targeting organized crime figures and local officials have uncovered arms caches, some linked to potential drug storage sites, again highlighting the intersection of arms and narcotics trafficking in Bolivia.

The country is a destination for counterfeit goods, including electronics, clothing and pharmaceuticals, although Bolivian-made counterfeit medical products have also been detected abroad, prompting international alerts. Expired and counterfeit medicines were found in local markets, and a border operation with Chile intercepted counterfeit alcohol and apparel. In addition to the counterfeited items, Bolivia is also a key hub for contraband smuggling, with the illicit trade in excisable goods deeply embedded in its economy. Fuelled by economic instability in neighbouring countries, government subsidies and high informality, this market attracts both local and transnational criminal networks. Major smuggled goods include alcohol, cigarettes and cars. Cigarette smuggling is particularly significant, with Bolivia serving as both a transit and destination point, notably for Paraguayan products. The smuggling trade is accompanied by violence and corruption, affecting law enforcement agencies. Authorities continue their efforts to curb these activities through increased seizures.

Environment

In Bolivia, deforestation has surged in previous years, driven in part by environmental crimes such as illegal logging. The country remains a notable source of illegal timber trafficked from the Amazon, with deforestation often linked to other illicit activities. Timber trafficked from Bolivia reaches international markets including the US and China, driven by demand for high-value species. It also serves as a transit hub for flora smuggling between Brazil and Peru. Reports indicate the involvement of complex networks of state and non-state actors that perpetuate these illicit activities. Often backed by external financiers and local state-embedded actors, such activities threaten indigenous communities and contribute to the expansion of organized environmental crime across the region.

Bolivia primarily serves as a source country for the illegal wildlife trade, such as birds and reptiles. While much of the trade supplies local markets, cross-border trafficking is prevalent, especially to Brazil, Ecuador, Chile and Peru. The Pando Department is a hotspot for turtle smuggling, where open transactions with Brazilian buyers highlight enforcement challenges. Bolivia has also seen trafficking in rhinoceros beetles, primarily destined for Japan, and an escalating trade in jaguar fangs is linked to Chinese criminal networks. Jaguar poaching, concentrated in Ixiamas, is closely associated with illegal gold mining. State complicity exacerbates the issue, as seen in a prison where jaguar skins were processed into goods for foreign buyers. Wildlife traffickers, often Chinese nationals, have streamlined operations by working directly with experienced hunters and bypassing Bolivian intermediaries to minimize detection. They also use bribery to facilitate exports. Postal seizures of jaguar parts have declined since 2019, suggesting evolving trafficking methods. Traffickers have adapted to stricter enforcement by shifting to smuggling routes through Brazil, Vietnam and Hong Kong, reducing reliance on direct shipments.

Bolivia is experiencing high levels of illegal gold mining, driven by record-high prices and growing international demand. Weak oversight in mining, sales and exports enables discrepancies between reported production and actual gold exports, with significant volumes originating from unregistered sources. Small-scale cooperatives, which dominate the industry, often engage in corruption and environmental violations, including mining in protected areas. These cooperatives frequently collaborate with foreign actors to legitimize their gold, exploiting regulatory gaps that enable false documentation. The environmental damage from mining is severe, with widespread toxic contamination linked to abandoned waste sites. Mercury smuggling networks, fuelled by Bolivia’s gold sector, supply illegal mining operations in Brazil and Peru. Additionally, Bolivia’s subsidized fuel system has been exploited for illegal trade, with criminal networks smuggling fuel to neighbouring countries. Tiered pricing has been introduced to curb this practice, but resale at inflated rates continues.

Drugs

Bolivia has evolved from a key transit hub to a significant producer and exporter of cocaine, driven by structural challenges such as political instability and corruption. Coca cultivation has expanded into protected areas, leading to record drug seizures. Criminal networks, including Brazilian gangs and European syndicates, play a central role in the trade, and state-embedded actors facilitate trafficking. Rising production has fuelled disputes over control and pricing, with Peruvian coca imports complicating regulation. Shifting trafficking routes and increased precursor shipments through Chile further indicate criminal organizations’ adaptability to regional enforcement measures and geopolitical constraints. The heroin market is not consolidated, with no indications of domestic production or demand. No heroin seizures have been recorded over the past two years, nor has the country been identified as a transit route for trafficking.

Bolivia has low cannabis consumption due to the cultural preference for coca leaf. However, marijuana seizures have sharply risen over the past couple of years. Bolivia primarily serves as a transit zone for cannabis trafficking, although cannabis is reportedly smuggled in from Chile for local demand.

The country primarily serves as a transit point for synthetic drugs, but recent cases indicate a growing trend of local production in residential settings. Demand has increased for imported synthetic substances, including MDMA, Tusi and methamphetamines. The market is dominated by small-scale operators who either personally import drugs or manufacture them domestically. Evidence suggests coordination with contacts in the Netherlands and the Czech Republic, with shipments arriving through international courier services.

Cyber Crimes

Cybercrime levels have reportedly stayed at moderate levels, similar to the previous reporting period. Hacking has been identified as the most common type of cybercrime, with Bolivia facing a series of cyberattacks targeting key public and private institutions. These breaches exposed vulnerabilities in the country’s cybersecurity infrastructure that led to the publication of anti-government messages and leaks of sensitive personal data belonging to citizens and government officials, including high-ranking authorities.

Financial Crimes

Because Bolivia’s political landscape is marked by clientelism, the distinction between political practices and financial crimes involving state collusion is complex. Accusations of corruption and embezzlement are often contested due to political polarization. Counterfeit money, primarily produced in Peru, continues to circulate in informal markets. Additionally, fraudulent social media schemes have proliferated, with scammers hijacking social media accounts to offer fake financial opportunities and deceive victims through misleading links. These developments highlight persistent financial crime risks amid regional and technological influences.

Criminal Actors

Bolivia’s organized crime landscape is shaped by regionalized family-based clans rather than nationwide mafia structures. These clans, particularly those involved in cocaine production, maintain strong connections with foreign criminal actors. The emergence of hired killings carried out by individuals from Brazil and Colombia on behalf of Bolivian clans raises concerns about a potential increase in violence.

Criminal networks are increasingly involved in a wide range of illicit activities. In La Paz and Oruro, loose organizations move small quantities of cocaine, manage the distribution of drugs that enter from Peru and provide other types of services within the drug trafficking chain. Some of these are beginning to test their capacity to produce cocaine base. Illicit trade in contraband and excise goods is also perpetrated by loose criminal networks.

State-embedded actors in Bolivia facilitate organized crime through corruption and direct involvement in illicit activities. The police and other institutions have long been linked to drug trafficking, with high-ranking officials colluding with traffickers. Political figures in regions with significant drug-related activity further entrench this system. Officials have also been implicated in human smuggling and illegal prison enterprises, and border control corruption enables smuggling and counterfeit trade. Weak oversight of airfield operations and informal airstrips has also turned Bolivia into a major cocaine air corridor, exacerbating its role in transnational drug trafficking.

Providing refuge for high-value traffickers amid widespread impunity, Bolivia has emerged as a key hub in the evolving global drug trade. The expansion of Brazilian criminal organizations, such as the Primeiro Comando da Capital and Comando Vermelho, has intensified as security crackdowns in Brazil push them into Bolivia. The Venezuelan Tren de Aragua cartel has increased its presence in Bolivia, engaging in human trafficking and smuggling operations. Chinese entities dominate illegal gold mining and wildlife trafficking. Colombian groups engage in predatory lending. Peruvian actors fuel illicit gold extraction with mercury supplies. The cocaine market is also increasingly transnational, with Albanian, Italian and Mexican cartels forging alliances with European and Russian mafias to optimize logistics and drug flow to Europe, deepening Bolivia’s role in organized crime networks.

Various industries, including logging, mining, cattle ranching and real estate, appear to be intertwined with organized crime, using legal business structures to facilitate illicit activities. Systemic corruption within the justice system and regulatory institutions enables wealthy private actors to evade investigation through bribery.

Leadership and governance

Bolivia faces significant governance challenges, marked by political instability, weak rule of law and a deeply polarized environment. A power struggle within the ruling party has led to internal fragmentation. The disqualification of one candidate from the 2025 elections sparked nationwide protests and violent road blockades, escalating tensions. The situation worsened with an armed takeover of a military post. Organized crime has increasingly penetrated the political system, with state actors allegedly facilitating drug trafficking and political actors exploiting state institutions in their power struggles. Investigations revealed government ties to criminal networks, including a mayor implicated in arms and drug-related activities. Land rights databases were reportedly manipulated by former officials to enable fraudulent land acquisitions. Social polarization is compounded by ethnic and racial discrimination, undermining governance and legislative processes. Political instability culminated in an attempted coup in 2024, reflecting broader regional trends of democratic backsliding and rising political fragmentation. The government has since declared anti-drug efforts a national priority, though internal disputes continue to overshadow governance.

Bolivia faces persistent corruption across government institutions and economic sectors, including law enforcement and extractive industries. Anti-corruption laws exist but are weakly enforced, and bribery frequently undermines public procurement. A recent corruption scandal led to a ministerial resignation, highlighting systemic issues. Mismanagement of public funds has allegedly benefited political allies, with infrastructure programmes linked to the ruling party resulting in inflated costs, unfinished projects and financial losses. A review of public spending suggests that funds meant for indigenous development were diverted. Transparency laws are weak, limiting public access to government information. Although officials must declare assets, these records remain inaccessible, further restricting oversight and accountability in public administration.

Bolivia has actively engaged in international agreements to combat organized crime. It has ratified most global conventions, except the Arms Trade Treaty, and joined regional agreements addressing environmental crime. Enforcement and compliance remain limited. During the reporting period, Bolivia chose not to renew the local office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights and opposed external scrutiny. Political tensions hindered bilateral cooperation on human smuggling with Chile, although a broader transnational crime agreement was later signed. Bolivia collaborates with neighbouring countries on drug trafficking measures, with limited operational success. The country proposed a Latin American anti-drug alliance to enhance regional cooperation, excluding external influence.

Bolivia’s legal framework has notable gaps in aligning with international standards, particularly in labour rights, environmental protection and intellectual property. Forced labour and commercial sexual exploitation remain inadequately criminalized, limiting human rights protections. Environmental crimes persist despite existing laws, with contradictions enabling deforestation and illegal mining. Only a fraction of mining cooperatives hold the required environmental licences, exacerbating regulatory weaknesses. Recent government efforts include a draft decree to combat illegal mining and initiatives to reduce mercury use in gold extraction. Contraband laws remain largely ineffective due to economic and social resistance. Bolivia also lacks personal data protection and cybercrime legislation. Intellectual property reforms are stalled with no clear progress towards implementation.

Criminal justice and security

Bolivia remains the only country where judges are elected by popular vote, but candidates are first nominated by the legislature, which has historically allowed the ruling party to shape the judiciary. This system has led to political influence, factionalism, corruption and overburdened courts. The judiciary suffers from chronic underfunding, with only a fraction of the federal budget allocated. A significant portion of judges and prosecutors hold temporary positions, making them vulnerable to political pressure. Judicial independence has eroded further due to political interference, extending even to criminal justice proceedings. Prolonged pretrial detention contributes to severe prison overcrowding, with detention facilities exceeding capacity by triple-digit percentages, prompting international concern over human rights abuses. While legislation was introduced to enhance transparency in selecting the attorney general, political influence over judicial appointments remains pervasive, allowing the systemic weaknesses that organized crime exploits.

There are specialized law enforcement units for organized crime, drug trafficking, environmental protection and intelligence, but structural reform is necessary to enhance transparency and accountability. While the government acknowledges the police’s role in combating drug trafficking, it also recognizes the need to address corruption. Environmental crime investigations are hindered by understaffing, lack of resources and the absence of digitalized records.

Bolivia shares porous borders with major drug-producing and consuming nations. Its diverse terrain, including the Andes and the Amazon, complicates enforcement, with only 16 official crossings and over 320 illegal passages. Border security remains weak due to insufficient resources, despite personnel increases in customs enforcement units. Limited coordination with neighbouring law enforcement worsens oversight, although Bolivia has sought cooperation with Chile to curb contraband. The Argentine border is a key transit zone where economic interdependence complicates enforcement. Weak migration controls and legal ambiguities further hinder oversight. Resistance to state control is evident along the Desaguadero border with Peru and in illegal mining zones. Bolivia also lacks cyber-defence capacity, but cybercrime remains a low-priority threat.

Economic and financial environment

Bolivia continues to face significant challenges in combating money laundering. Despite recent efforts to strengthen its anti-money laundering framework, the country remains at moderate to high risk. Financial sector regulators demonstrate awareness of the risk, but their oversight of non-financial entities such as lawyers, accountants and real estate firms is underdeveloped. Investigations have largely focused on money laundering linked to drug trafficking and corruption, yet convictions are rare. Although the Financial Action Task Force has recognized improvements, major vulnerabilities persist, particularly in the gold sector.

Bolivia’s state-driven market economy is exposed to inefficiencies in state-owned enterprises and vulnerable to external shocks. Its investment environment is one of the riskiest in the Americas, with weak rule of law, corruption, political interference and limited business freedom. Economic instability is marked by low foreign reserves, dollar scarcity and liquidity issues in banks, and aggravated by rising food prices and fuel shortages. Over 80% of the workforce is employed informally. Political tensions and economic difficulties fuelled public unrest as Bolivia prepared for the 2025 elections.

Civil society and social protection

During the reporting period, the Bolivian government’s efforts to address human trafficking included victim identification protocols and a national referral mechanism. However, victim protection efforts declined from previous years, with no victims reported as being referred to care. Law enforcement struggled to provide safe accommodation for victims, and underage male victims were not referred to appropriate organizations. Witness protection remained ineffective due to public distrust, but the government did introduce an action plan to prevent revictimization. The ombudsman’s office did not receive sufficient resources to work effectively. Wildlife protection saw improvement, with 24 operational wildlife custody centres, including private centres, nature parks and rescue centres.

The government took steps to address organized crime across several sectors. Under the PlanetGOLD Initiative, a partnership was formed with the federation of gold-mining cooperatives to reduce mercury use in gold mining over five years. In combating human trafficking, the government launched a comprehensive programme along the Bolivia–Argentina border and provided training for immigration authorities. The 2021–2025 National Action Plan focused on prevention, victim support and prosecution, although its implementation funding was not clearly reported. Additionally, two supreme decrees were enacted to strengthen the regulation and monitoring of gasoline and diesel and controlled substances used in illegal drug production.

Despite constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression, Bolivia has seen ongoing government hostility toward critical media, with government officials and police harassing and censoring independent journalists. Economic pressures caused by tax penalties and the state withdrawing its advertising led to the closure of major media outlets. Press freedom remains threatened as journalists face increasing attacks, especially from law enforcement. NGOs, although legally constrained, remain essential in highlighting issues like resource trafficking and violations against women activists.