How to measure organized crime?
A series of 13 discussion papers, one for each illicit market considered during the development of the Index.
Read more on globalinitiative.netCriminal markets
4.10
An assessment of the value, prevalence and non-monetary impacts of a specific crime type.
Human trafficking
4.50
Illicit activity involving coercion, deception, abduction or fraud for the purpose of exploitation, regardless of the victim’s consent.
Human smuggling
4.00
Activities by an organized crime group involving the illegal entry, transit or residence of migrants for a financial or material benefit.
Arms trafficking
4.00
The sale, acquisition, movement, and diversion of arms, their parts and ammunition from legal to illegal commerce and/or across borders.
Flora crimes
3.50
The illicit trade and possession of species covered by CITES convention, and other species protected under national law.
Fauna crimes
3.50
The poaching, illicit trade in and possession of species covered by CITES and other species protected by national law. Includes IUU fishing.
Non-renewable resource crimes
3.00
The illicit extraction, smuggling, mingling, bunkering or mining of natural resources and the illicit trade of such commodities.
Heroin trade
4.50
The production, distribution and sale of heroin. Consumption of the drug is considered in determining the reach of the criminal market.
Cocaine trade
5.00
The production, distribution and sale of cocaine and its derivatives. Consumption is considered in determining the reach of the market.
Cannabis trade
4.50
The illicit cultivation, distribution and sale of cannabis oil, resin, herb or leaves. Consumption is used to determine the market's reach.
Synthetic drug trade
4.50
The production, distribution and sale of synthetic drugs. Consumption is considered in determining the reach of the market.
Criminal actors
5.00
An assessment of the impact and influence of a specific criminal actor type on society.
Mafia-style groups
4.50
Clearly defined organized crime groups that usually have a known name, defined leadership, territorial control and identifiable membership.
Criminal networks
6.00
Loose networks of criminal associates engaging in criminal activities who fail to meet the defining characteristics of mafia-style groups.
State-embedded actors
4.50
Criminal actors that are embedded in, and act from within, the state’s apparatus.
Foreign actors
5.00
State and/or non-state criminal actors operating outside their home country. Includes foreign nationals and diaspora groups.
Political leadership and governance
7.00
The State's role in responding to organized crime and its effectiveness. Strong political leadership/governance suggests higher resilience.
Government transparency and accountability
5.50
The degree to which states have put oversight mechanisms in place to ensure against state collusion in illicit activities.
International cooperation
7.50
A country's supranational structures and processes of interaction, policy making and concrete implementation to respond to organized crime.
National policies and laws
7.00
A state's legal action and structures put in place to respond to organized crime.
Judicial system and detention
5.50
Refers to a state’s judiciary’s power to effectively and independently enforce judgments on organized crime-related cases.
Law enforcement
7.50
The state’s ability to investigate, gather intelligence, protect and enforce adherence to its rules and procedures against organized crime.
Territorial integrity
6.00
The degree to which states are able to control their physical and cyber territory and infrastructure against organized criminal activities.
Anti-money laundering
6.50
A state’s ability to implement measures to combat money laundering and other related threats to the integrity of its financial system.
Economic regulatory capacity
5.50
The ability to control/manage the economy and regulate transactions (national and international) for trade to thrive within the rule of law.
Victim and witness support
7.00
Assistance provided to victims of various forms of organized crime, including initiatives such as witness protection programs.
Prevention
5.50
Refers to the existence of strategies, measures, resource allocation, programmes and processes that are aimed to inhibit organized crime.
Non-state actors
7.00
The degree non-state actors are allowed to engage in OC responses and their roles in supporting State efforts/ as watchdogs to governments.
Political leadership and governance
7.00
The State's role in responding to organized crime and its effectiveness. Strong political leadership/governance suggests higher resilience.
Government transparency and accountability
5.50
The degree to which states have put oversight mechanisms in place to ensure against state collusion in illicit activities.
International cooperation
7.50
A country's supranational structures and processes of interaction, policy making and concrete implementation to respond to organized crime.
National policies and laws
7.00
A state's legal action and structures put in place to respond to organized crime.
Judicial system and detention
5.50
Refers to a state’s judiciary’s power to effectively and independently enforce judgments on organized crime-related cases.
Law enforcement
7.50
The state’s ability to investigate, gather intelligence, protect and enforce adherence to its rules and procedures against organized crime.
Territorial integrity
6.00
The degree to which states are able to control their physical and cyber territory and infrastructure against organized criminal activities.
Anti-money laundering
6.50
A state’s ability to implement measures to combat money laundering and other related threats to the integrity of its financial system.
Economic regulatory capacity
5.50
The ability to control/manage the economy and regulate transactions (national and international) for trade to thrive within the rule of law.
Victim and witness support
7.00
Assistance provided to victims of various forms of organized crime, including initiatives such as witness protection programs.
Prevention
5.50
Refers to the existence of strategies, measures, resource allocation, programmes and processes that are aimed to inhibit organized crime.
Non-state actors
7.00
The degree non-state actors are allowed to engage in OC responses and their roles in supporting State efforts/ as watchdogs to governments.
Portugal is a source, transit and destination country for human trafficking, which is one of the two biggest criminal markets in the country. The majority of victims trafficked into Portugal are from Moldova, whereas Spain is the most common destination country for people trafficked from Portugal. Reports have suggested that Portugal is also becoming part of a route for the trafficking of victims from African countries by sub-Saharan African criminal networks. Labour exploitation is the most common form of trafficking identified by the authorities. However, there have been incidents of trafficking for the purposes of sexual exploitation and forced begging. Recruiters and exploiters include both domestic and foreign actors.
Portugal is a source, transit and destination country for human smuggling. Agriculture and hospitality are the most common sectors that employ irregular migrants in Portugal. Smuggling often involves criminal networks with links to corporate companies. There have also been cases where human smuggling involved the participation of state actors, including border police, but these are the exception rather than the norm.
Portugal is a transit country for firearms trafficked into Africa. Firearms conversion is a popular mechanism for acquiring illicit weapons in the country and their importation into Portugal is increasing. The dark web is used to circulate illegal weapons, especially those that are already on the black market. The dark web is also used to divert weapons that are legally owned. The participation of state actors in the criminal market of arms trafficking is quite common, along with mafia-style groups.
Flora crimes in Portugal are not particularly pervasive, but Portugal is, nevertheless, one of the lead destination countries in Europe for protected species of flora trafficked from Brazil. Portugal is also a destination country for illegally-logged timber from Democratic Republic of Congo. Similarly, the fauna crimes market is also fairly limited in the country, but Portugal is known to play a role as a transit and destination country for trafficked exotic fauna species. Due to its geographic position, colonial links and weak law enforcement, Portugal is a well-known entry point for bird smuggling from Latin America, mainly supplying markets in Western Europe and, to a lesser extent, Africa. Glass eel trafficking is also an issue in Portugal and involves highly organized crime networks. Lastly, Portugal is a minor transit and destination country for the non-renewable resources criminal market, where diamonds and emeralds have been seized. Often these gems are brought to Portugal via commercial flights from Africa, and then cut and shipped to Belgium.
Portugal is a transit and destination country for cocaine trafficking. In 2018, cocaine was the most trafficked drug in the country. Most of the cocaine seized in Portugal comes from Latin America and the Caribbean and is distributed internally or trafficked to other European countries. The cocaine criminal market is transnational in nature, as cocaine is not produced internally. However, domestic state actors and mafia-style groups are also involved in the trafficking of cocaine. Furthermore, authorities have expressed concern about the increased use of the dark net for the trade. Portugal is a source country for cannabis herb, with most of the cannabis destined for other parts of Europe, Brazil and Guinea Bissau. The cannabis resin is trafficked in from other countries, particularly Morocco. In 2018, cannabis was the second most commonly seized drug. Most criminal actors involved in the cannabis trade are transnational. However, domestic networks were also involved, but only in relation to the trafficking of cannabis herb. In addition, there is also evidence of state actors participating in this trade. Although domestic production appears to be continuing despite the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a decrease in availability and an increase in price.
Portugal is both a key transit and destination country for synthetic drugs. MDMA/Ecstasy is considered to be the second most used drug in Portugal. The drugs are generally trafficked into the country from the Netherlands, followed by Spain, Belgium and France. Mafia-style groups are involved in the internal distribution of methamphetamines. During the COVID-19 pandemic, social media largely replaced street markets in the trafficking of illegal synthetic drugs. Portugal is both a transit and destination country for heroin trafficking. Portuguese authorities have stressed that heroin trafficking has been gaining relevance. At the same time, heroin was the least trafficked drug in Portugal in 2018. Most of the heroin seized in Portugal comes from Spain and Mozambique and is then sold internally or trafficked to Europe. Most of the heroin seized was transported by land, followed by air. Transnational networks are the most common criminal actors involved in the heroin trade in Portugal. However, internal distribution is done by small groups of organized criminals with family links. The COVID-19 pandemic has reduced shipments of heroin, at least temporarily, because of travel restrictions.
*This indicator was first included in the 2023 iteration of the tool
*This indicator was first included in the 2023 iteration of the tool
Overall, organized crime is not considered to be a major issue in Portugal. However, some specific organized mafia-style groups have been identified as operating at the domestic level, such as the Hells Angels and Los Bandidos, which have been in conflict with each other over territorial disputes. These groups are involved in homicide, extortion, theft, drug trafficking and the illegal possession and trafficking of weapons and ammunition. There is evidence of the presence of loose criminal networks in Portugal. Often these networks comprise small groups linked by family ties, and are involved in internal drug trafficking, particularly cannabis. Criminal networks are also involved in labour exploitation, mainly in rural areas of the district of Beja. In cases of sexual exploitation, the crimes are concentrated in urban centres, such as Faro and Lisbon. The criminal networks operating in Portugal often establish working relationships with foreign networks, that are responsible for producing and transporting drugs, or for recruiting and transporting victims, to Portugal.
There are various foreign criminal groups in Portugal that are involved in theft, general violence and homicide. In recent years, there is also evidence of foreign involvement in the cocaine trade from South America, as well as human trafficking from Eastern Europe. In addition, foreign actors have reportedly moved and laundered criminal proceeds into Portugal from Spain and the USA due to increased law enforcement pressure in the latter two countries. Cases concerning state-embedded actors typically relate to situations where government officials facilitate crimes through inaction. Most notable is the use of Portugal’s Golden Visa scheme, which provides a gateway for corrupt individuals and corporations to enter Europe and allows for money laundering and tax evasion. There have also been cases where state actors are involved in human smuggling, narcotics trafficking and arms trafficking.
While the international community does not consider organized crime in Portugal a major issue, it is one of the main priorities of the Portuguese government. This situation is reflected in the countries' national policies, where organized crime is considered a priority in terms of preventive and investigative actions. In addition, their position against organized crime is well reflected in the media, which regularly reports on successful operations tackling organized crime groups and their illegal activities. The majority of cases of corruption related to organized crime are sporadic. The only evidence of systemic corruption was an instance of fraud and money laundering as far back as 2014, which involved high-ranking state officials, including the prime minister at the time. There are limited mechanisms in place in Portugal to stop state corruption. Additionally, public perception on corruption includes skepticism about public officials and the police. Nevertheless, corruption perception in the country is comparably low.
On the international level, Portugal has ratified all international legal instruments relevant to organized crime. There is also evidence that Portugal has been complying with most measures established by these international treaties. The only significant breach related to the implementation of international instruments in Portugal seems to be associated with the issue of corruption. Portugal has been taking important and constructive steps in terms of international cooperation, which include the establishment of successful joint operations between the Portuguese and foreign law enforcement authorities on issues of organized crime, as well as several other partnerships established between Portugal and other European and non-European countries related to human trafficking. On the domestic level, the national legal framework is in line with all international treaties on organized crime. The country has legal provisions criminalizing human trafficking, drug trafficking, human smuggling, arms trafficking, fauna, flora and non-renewable resource crimes. However, there is some evidence that legal loopholes exist in the national legal framework.
Portugal has a specific department in the judicial system that executes the prosecution of violent and organized crime. Its efficiency, however, has come under scrutiny over the past couple of years because of the small number of cases investigated. In terms of the prison system, there has been recent evidence of organized criminal activities inside high security prisons. The country has a law enforcement agency responsible for conducting investigations related to organized crime. Additionally, cases relating to human trafficking are under the jurisdiction of another police body, which is also responsible for the investigation of the crimes of aiding illegal migration, such as human smuggling. Although it is difficult to gauge public trust in law enforcement, several media outlets have featured successful investigations and arrests related to organized crime groups and activities. Furthermore, various government reports have been released that contain information on the specific actions taken by law enforcement agencies to counter different criminal markets. With Portugal’s considerable coastline, its geographic location and historical ties with South America, it is especially vulnerable to transnational organized crime. Portugal’s Golden Visa scheme has also been identified as a potential threat to the country’s territorial integrity.
Portugal has several provisions to prevent criminal activities in business. Although regulatory frameworks exist at the legislative level, they are not always respected. Labour exploitation is indeed the most common transgression identified in Portugal. Some sectors of the economy also seem to be under the influence of organized crime groups, particularly the private security market and the agriculture sector. There are also several entities responsible for investigating regulatory infractions associated with money laundering. Despite this, there have been cases of money laundering activities reported within the country that involved not only criminal actors, but also high-ranking state officials. Reportedly, foreign actors have since recently began moving and laundering criminal proceeds in the country from Spain and the USA due to increased law enforcement pressures in the latter two.
Most preventive initiatives in Portugal are related to human trafficking and drug trafficking. The only preventive strategies adopted in relation to flora and fauna crimes are the inspections carried out by competent authorities. Victims of drug trafficking are mostly assisted by the state, while non-state actors that are partially financed by the state, largely support victims of human trafficking. These victims are often provided with accommodation, psychological assistance, legal assistance, training/education and repatriation assistance. However, the limited capacity of shelters in general, and for male victims in particular, does not meet current needs. Press and media freedom is largely enjoyed in Portugal, as journalists are permitted to publish what they want, without fear of retribution. Despite this, journalists and the media often face threats and aggression from the public and are badly paid, with minimal job security.
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The criminal markets score is represented by the pyramid base size and the criminal actors score is represented by the pyramid height, on a scale ranging from 1 to 10. The resilience score is represented by the panel height, which can be identified by the side of the panel.
A series of 13 discussion papers, one for each illicit market considered during the development of the Index.
Read more on globalinitiative.net
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This report was funded in part by a grant from the United States Department of State.
ENACT is funded by the European Union and implemented by the Institute for Security Studies and INTERPOL, in affiliation with the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime.
The opinions, findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State.