How to measure organized crime?
A series of 13 discussion papers, one for each illicit market considered during the development of the Index.
Read more on globalinitiative.netCriminal markets
4.95
An assessment of the value, prevalence and non-monetary impacts of a specific crime type.
Human trafficking
5.50
Illicit activity involving coercion, deception, abduction or fraud for the purpose of exploitation, regardless of the victim’s consent.
Human smuggling
6.50
Activities by an organized crime group involving the illegal entry, transit or residence of migrants for a financial or material benefit.
Arms trafficking
3.00
The sale, acquisition, movement, and diversion of arms, their parts and ammunition from legal to illegal commerce and/or across borders.
Flora crimes
3.00
The illicit trade and possession of species covered by CITES convention, and other species protected under national law.
Fauna crimes
4.50
The poaching, illicit trade in and possession of species covered by CITES and other species protected by national law. Includes IUU fishing.
Non-renewable resource crimes
3.00
The illicit extraction, smuggling, mingling, bunkering or mining of natural resources and the illicit trade of such commodities.
Heroin trade
3.00
The production, distribution and sale of heroin. Consumption of the drug is considered in determining the reach of the criminal market.
Cocaine trade
6.00
The production, distribution and sale of cocaine and its derivatives. Consumption is considered in determining the reach of the market.
Cannabis trade
9.00
The illicit cultivation, distribution and sale of cannabis oil, resin, herb or leaves. Consumption is used to determine the market's reach.
Synthetic drug trade
6.00
The production, distribution and sale of synthetic drugs. Consumption is considered in determining the reach of the market.
Criminal actors
4.63
An assessment of the impact and influence of a specific criminal actor type on society.
Mafia-style groups
1.00
Clearly defined organized crime groups that usually have a known name, defined leadership, territorial control and identifiable membership.
Criminal networks
6.50
Loose networks of criminal associates engaging in criminal activities who fail to meet the defining characteristics of mafia-style groups.
State-embedded actors
7.00
Criminal actors that are embedded in, and act from within, the state’s apparatus.
Foreign actors
4.00
State and/or non-state criminal actors operating outside their home country. Includes foreign nationals and diaspora groups.
Political leadership and governance
4.50
The State's role in responding to organized crime and its effectiveness. Strong political leadership/governance suggests higher resilience.
Government transparency and accountability
3.50
The degree to which states have put oversight mechanisms in place to ensure against state collusion in illicit activities.
International cooperation
6.00
A country's supranational structures and processes of interaction, policy making and concrete implementation to respond to organized crime.
National policies and laws
6.00
A state's legal action and structures put in place to respond to organized crime.
Judicial system and detention
4.00
Refers to a state’s judiciary’s power to effectively and independently enforce judgments on organized crime-related cases.
Law enforcement
5.50
The state’s ability to investigate, gather intelligence, protect and enforce adherence to its rules and procedures against organized crime.
Territorial integrity
6.00
The degree to which states are able to control their physical and cyber territory and infrastructure against organized criminal activities.
Anti-money laundering
3.50
A state’s ability to implement measures to combat money laundering and other related threats to the integrity of its financial system.
Economic regulatory capacity
4.50
The ability to control/manage the economy and regulate transactions (national and international) for trade to thrive within the rule of law.
Victim and witness support
4.50
Assistance provided to victims of various forms of organized crime, including initiatives such as witness protection programs.
Prevention
4.00
Refers to the existence of strategies, measures, resource allocation, programmes and processes that are aimed to inhibit organized crime.
Non-state actors
3.50
The degree non-state actors are allowed to engage in OC responses and their roles in supporting State efforts/ as watchdogs to governments.
Political leadership and governance
4.50
The State's role in responding to organized crime and its effectiveness. Strong political leadership/governance suggests higher resilience.
Government transparency and accountability
3.50
The degree to which states have put oversight mechanisms in place to ensure against state collusion in illicit activities.
International cooperation
6.00
A country's supranational structures and processes of interaction, policy making and concrete implementation to respond to organized crime.
National policies and laws
6.00
A state's legal action and structures put in place to respond to organized crime.
Judicial system and detention
4.00
Refers to a state’s judiciary’s power to effectively and independently enforce judgments on organized crime-related cases.
Law enforcement
5.50
The state’s ability to investigate, gather intelligence, protect and enforce adherence to its rules and procedures against organized crime.
Territorial integrity
6.00
The degree to which states are able to control their physical and cyber territory and infrastructure against organized criminal activities.
Anti-money laundering
3.50
A state’s ability to implement measures to combat money laundering and other related threats to the integrity of its financial system.
Economic regulatory capacity
4.50
The ability to control/manage the economy and regulate transactions (national and international) for trade to thrive within the rule of law.
Victim and witness support
4.50
Assistance provided to victims of various forms of organized crime, including initiatives such as witness protection programs.
Prevention
4.00
Refers to the existence of strategies, measures, resource allocation, programmes and processes that are aimed to inhibit organized crime.
Non-state actors
3.50
The degree non-state actors are allowed to engage in OC responses and their roles in supporting State efforts/ as watchdogs to governments.
Morocco is a source, destination and transit country for the human trafficking market. Undocumented female migrants from sub-Saharan Africa, as well as from Southern Asia, are coerced into prostitution and forced labour, while a number of Filipino women are forced into domestic labour. Moroccan men, women and children are exploited in forced-labour and sex-trafficking markets abroad, primarily in Europe and the Middle East. Traffickers include Moroccan and foreign nationals who belong to sub-Saharan networks.
Morocco is a transit and source country for migrant smuggling, with both foreign actors and Moroccans involved in human-smuggling operations. In 2018, the Moroccan route became the most important entry point to Europe. Rising levels of human smuggling have contributed to local insecurity, with migrants being recruited into the informal and criminal economies. It has also sparked violence between migrants and security forces. While the COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a relative decrease in human smuggling from Morocco to mainland Spain, the number of people smuggled to the Canary Islands is likely to have increased.
Morocco seems to be less exposed to arms trafficking than other countries in the region, but the armed movement in the Saharawi Republic continues to be a source of small and light weapons proliferation in Morocco. There have also been cases of weapon seizures from suspected terrorist cells present in the country.
Atlas cedar trees are harvested illegally for resale in Morocco, as well as exported by what is sometimes referred to as the Atlas cedar mafia. However, the actual volume of trafficking of this species is relatively low. Trafficking of protected animal species such as the goldfinch and the Barbary macaque also takes place, with Europe often being the destination. Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing is another problem, with quotas and off-season fishing bans being violated frequently, while the trafficking of eels destined for Spanish and Asian markets is also prevalent.
In terms of non-renewable-resource crimes, Morocco was once a fairly large exporter of gold to the United Arab Emirates, but this seems to have declined recently. Oil is still smuggled from Algeria to Morocco's border regions. However, the trafficking and illicit sale of petrol, which previously involved large numbers of unemployed individuals in north-eastern Morocco, has declined sharply since 2015.
Morocco is one of the most important producers of cannabis in the world, with production concentrated in the Rif region, and trade traditionally centred in Chefchaouen and Ketama. While there is significant local consumption throughout the territory, Moroccan cannabis is also widely distributed across the entire wider region, as well as to European markets. Domestic cannabis cultivation and production are large contributors to the Moroccan economy, and although the tail end of 2020 saw an increased debate surrounding the potential legalization of cannabis, the illicit market as a whole has remained stable in recent years.
There are regular reports of the increasing availability and consumption of heroin in northern Morocco, particularly in Nador and Tangier. Extensive drug trafficking takes place between Morocco and Spain, including of Afghan heroin that is shipped to Morocco before heading for European markets. Morocco is a key trans-shipment point for South American cocaine on its way into European markets, with large volumes of the drug being moved through Morocco via its sea and air routes. While there is a limited local market – consisting mainly of the national elite, expats and tourists – cocaine trafficking through Morocco is increasing and the country is home to the first cocaine-processing lab in Africa. There have been reports of the widespread availability of Ecstasy in Morocco, as well as of crystal methamphetamine and Karkoubi consumption. Psychotropic drugs are apparently becoming increasingly prevalent. However, the COVID-19 pandemic and related lockdowns are likely to have slowed down imports, at least temporarily, of synthetic drugs, heroin and cocaine.
*This indicator was first included in the 2023 iteration of the tool
*This indicator was first included in the 2023 iteration of the tool
The so-called Moroccan mafia is made up of many criminal networks whose members are Moroccan or of Moroccan descent. These networks are active in the country as well as abroad, particularly in the Netherlands and Belgium. They are composed of several gangs and are involved mainly in cannabis trafficking between Morocco and Europe. Despite their name, these groups do not have the characteristics of a mafia-style organization (there is no evidence to suggest that mafia-style groups exist in the country), but function rather as criminal networks involved in common crimes. These networks are highly flexible and tend to diversify their smuggling activities, especially at Morocco's borders with its North African neighbours, despite an enhanced police presence in these areas.
Foreign criminal networks made up of Latin American drug trafficking organizations and Italian organized crime groups are also active in Morocco, although the degree of their activities is limited and their impact is minimal. Nevertheless, they do have strong ties with domestic criminal networks in Morocco. There is low-level corruption among law enforcement officers and services that protect trafficking networks. High-level officials in the security forces, military and government are involved in Morocco's organized crime markets. In particular, drug trafficking networks are believed to have connections in Morocco's highest political and administrative circles.
Political interests and influence prevent the Moroccan authorities from truly transforming their efforts to tackle organized crime. The government's decision to emphasize stability over the rule of law has enabled the human trafficking, human smuggling and petrol smuggling markets to proliferate. However, the interior minister and other state officials have attempted to introduce changes aimed at cannabis use. Political debates often centre on the issue of cannabis, and many in the political sphere advocate for the drug's legalization. The government has also made important strides in combating the illicit-arms trade. In spite of this, there is a notable lack of transparency in matters related to royal interests, and the accountability of law enforcement and military personnel is minimal. The chronic corruption witnessed in Morocco was further highlighted amid the COVID-19 pandemic as the government awarded public contracts with very little transparency or oversight. Overall, the Moroccan government, despite the rhetoric, has done little to combat corruption and improve transparency and accountability.
Morocco has ratified a number of international treaties and conventions on organized crime. It has also engaged in effective international cooperation efforts, particularly with regard to intelligence sharing. The country is open to receiving international assistance, but there are issues related to extradition. On a domestic level, Morocco has strong anti-organized crime legislation and a legal framework based on civil law. However, it is the implementation of the legal framework that is lacking. Moreover, the country does not have a clear national strategy against organized crime.
Although the constitutional reform of 2011 officially granted the judicial system a greater degree of independence, in practice the degree of independence of the judiciary in Morocco is low and the country’s courts are often used to target opposition voices. While the court system experienced disruptions due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the first half of 2020, prosecutions of various forms of organized crime did take place, although with regard to human trafficking judicial proceedings, prosecutors often fail to correctly distinguish between trafficking and smuggling. Prisons in Morocco are overcrowded and human rights abuses of those detained in the country’s prison system are regularly reported. The country’s law enforcement agency has recently created special investigative units, which are well equipped but limited in their overall capacity, especially in rural areas. Cooperation between Morocco's security forces could be improved. With regard to its territorial integrity, extensive smuggling, facilitated by corruption, takes place through Morocco's ports.
Morocco has a relatively strong economy for the region, but economic disparities exist within the country. It has a sizable informal economy, one of the largest in the region as a proportion of its GDP, which the government has been trying to reel in by introducing simplified administrative measures. Morocco has been assessed as being at high risk of money laundering and terrorist financing, as has been on the EU’s so-called ‘grey list’ of countries assessed to be non-cooperative for tax purposes since 2017. However, it has now set up a financial-intelligence processing unit to tackle money laundering and the financing of terrorism, which has helped the authorities uphold international anti-money laundering standards. At the end of 2020, a revised version of the criminal code related to money laundering was being drafted in Parliament to strengthen sanctions.
Victims of human trafficking do not receive adequate treatment and protection in Morocco, and the country has very few measures in place to help them exit from modern-day slavery. Drug addiction is being increasingly recognized as a medical condition, and Morocco is one of very few countries in the region to allow opioid-substitution treatment through the use of methadone. Drug-treatment and rehabilitation centres exist but are insufficient. Crime prevention activities take place across the country, but they are not widespread and are implemented mostly by foundations and NGOs.
Morocco has a capable and well-organized civil society, which is active in a variety of fields. However, there has been a notable crackdown on civil society, and in particular on journalists, by the authorities in recent years. Media organizations are subjected to significant external pressure, and investigative journalism remains rare. Many professional journalists, as well as citizen journalists, have been imprisoned. In 2020, a law aimed at restricting freedom of expression on social-media platforms during the COVID-19 pandemic was drafted, and eventually withdrawn, but the government, following widespread backlash by civil society activists and opposition political parties.
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The criminal markets score is represented by the pyramid base size and the criminal actors score is represented by the pyramid height, on a scale ranging from 1 to 10. The resilience score is represented by the panel height, which can be identified by the side of the panel.
A series of 13 discussion papers, one for each illicit market considered during the development of the Index.
Read more on globalinitiative.net
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This report was funded in part by a grant from the United States Department of State.
ENACT is funded by the European Union and implemented by the Institute for Security Studies and INTERPOL, in affiliation with the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime.
The opinions, findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State.