Turkmenistan

People

Human trafficking is a significant concern in Turkmenistan. Forced labour is particularly prevalent in the cotton industry, where state policies mandate the participation of public-sector workers, soldiers and vulnerable populations to meet production quotas. Reports indicate that even children as young as eight are forced to pick cotton under harsh conditions. Corruption has a critical role in perpetuating this system, with officials profiting from extortion schemes and farmers facing threats of land expropriation if they refuse to comply. Beyond domestic exploitation, Turkmen nationals are trafficked abroad, particularly to Türkiye, Russia, India and Western Asia, where they are subjected to forced labour in agriculture, construction, textiles and domestic service. Women are also exploited in the sex trade abroad. A lack of victim identification and minimal government assistance exacerbate the crisis.

The restrictive national policies and economic difficulties in Turkmenistan drive many citizens to seek irregular migration routes, making them vulnerable to smuggling networks. Criminal groups operating in Türkiye have a significant role, often collaborating with Turkmen companies to recruit labourers through illicit channels. The government’s refusal to issue or renew passports for citizens abroad exacerbates their vulnerability, leaving many without legal status and exposing them to exploitation. Transnational smuggling networks extend beyond Türkiye and Russia, with routes also leading into the EU. Polish authorities have intercepted Turkmen nationals involved in smuggling operations, revealing pathways through Belarus and Poland into Western Europe. In addition, Turkmen migrants in Türkiye have been targeted by terrorist recruiters exploiting their precarious legal status.

Although there is limited documented evidence of organized extortion networks, the construction sector experiences cases of racketeering, and some banks have been implicated in schemes that extort money from small businesses and individuals. Cases of extortion have also been documented in other economic sectors, particularly in the cotton harvest industry.

Trade

Turkmenistan’s arms trafficking market is relatively small, but involves domestic and foreign actors, particularly those linked to Afghanistan. Although the government has made efforts to confiscate unlicensed firearms, bribery and corruption allow some individuals to regain access to their weapons. Turkmenistan’s proximity to Afghanistan and regional instability contribute to arms smuggling risks, but overall, the state maintains tight control and transnational arms trafficking routes largely bypass the country.

The counterfeit goods market in Turkmenistan is prevalent, spanning textiles, electronics, footwear and pharmaceuticals. Criminal networks and foreign actors, primarily from Türkiye and China, dominate the trade, with both small retailers and high-ranking state affiliates being involved. Marketplaces in major cities, such as Ashgabat’s Russian and Teke bazaars, serve as distribution hubs for counterfeit products. Criminal groups are also involved in the production and distribution of counterfeit vodka, particularly from local brands.

The illicit trade of excise goods, particularly alcohol and tobacco, persists despite government crackdowns; foreign actors are involved in supplying materials for these operations. High tobacco prices and restrictions on legal sales fuel an underground cigarette market. Reports suggest that illicit tobacco networks operate with state protection in some areas, complicating enforcement efforts.

Environment

Flora crimes in Turkmenistan are relatively minor and primarily involve illegal logging for firewood and overharvesting of wild plants such as rhubarb. Efforts to provide natural gas have reduced reliance on firewood, yet funding and expertise shortages hinder effective forest monitoring.

Turkmenistan serves as a transit point for wildlife trafficking, particularly the illicit trade of falcons and hawks to the Gulf states. The trade in viper snake venom also persists. Despite this, the overall scale of fauna crimes appears limited. The country remains the only one in Central Asia not party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, but participates in regional environmental initiatives, such as fishing bans aimed at fish stock preservation. Reports indicate declining populations of saiga antelope and kulan, highlighting gaps in conservation enforcement.

Non-renewable resource crimes are pervasive in Turkmenistan, involving fuel smuggling and fraudulent oil transactions. Corruption and fraud are widespread in the sector, particularly in oil and gas. Smuggling operations involve under-reporting crude oil exports, leading to the sale of surplus volumes on the black market. State-affiliated actors engage in illicit profit schemes involving kickbacks and fuel adulteration. The lack of transparency in the natural gas trade has led to significant financial losses. Reports also suggest that high-ranking officials profit from illicit mineral fertilizer sales.

Drugs

Turkmenistan is a key transit country for Afghan heroin en route to Europe. Although official heroin seizures have been low, state-affiliated actors and criminal networks are suspected of facilitating the trade. Limited economic opportunities contribute to local participation in the drug trade, particularly in areas such as Gyokdepe. Smuggling routes through Iran and Türkiye connect to European markets, such as in the Netherlands, with border security officials often complicit in trafficking operations. Evolving smuggling tactics, such as drone usage, have been reported.

There is little evidence of an established cocaine market in Turkmenistan, suggesting that its presence is small and limited to elite consumers. Conversely, cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in Turkmenistan, with trafficking networks linked to Afghanistan. Although domestic demand is relatively low, border interceptions suggest that cannabis is trafficked through Turkmenistan to other destinations.

Synthetic drug use, particularly of tramadol and other pharmaceutical opioids, is increasing, especially among young people. Transnational networks operate through Turkmenistan, with methamphetamine smuggling routes traced from Iran across the country into other parts of Central Asia. This underscores Turkmenistan’s role as a transit point in the regional drug trade. The prison system is particularly affected by synthetic drug addiction, with drugs smuggled into prisons by staff and distributed among inmates and contributing to high mortality rates among inmates. Despite law enforcement efforts targeting small-scale distribution, local drug production continues to occur in urban areas, with precursor chemicals imported from China.

Cyber Crimes

Although cyber-dependent crimes such as ransomware attacks are becoming more common, the market in Turkmenistan remains limited. Criminal actors, including foreign entities, exploit vulnerabilities in the country’s underdeveloped cybersecurity infrastructure.

Financial Crimes

Turkmenistan’s financial sector is plagued by fraud, embezzlement and tax evasion, often involving bank employees and state actors. Economic hardships and a food crisis have exacerbated difficulties in cashing out salaries and pensions, leading to the rise of unofficial cash-out services and increased bank card fraud. Online scams, in particular fraudulent travel agencies and electronic trading schemes, have proliferated. Corruption within state institutions continues to facilitate financial crimes, undermining enforcement efforts. The informal economy is substantial, with many transactions occurring outside formal financial channels to evade state scrutiny. Offshore accounts are commonly used to hide assets, further complicating efforts to track and regulate financial activities.

Criminal Actors

Only a limited number of mafia-style groups are present in Turkmenistan, primarily owing to the state’s aggressive crackdowns in the 1990s. ‘Thieves in law’, a criminal fraternity originating in Stalinist prison camps, used to operate in the country, but they were systematically eradicated under President Saparmurat Niyazov’s regime. Prominent figures such as Ayli and Aymurad were executed, significantly weakening the group’s presence. Although some elements may still persist in the criminal underworld, mafia-style organizations hold little influence over Turkmenistan’s prison system, which remains under the absolute control of the state. Mafia-style groups have moderate access to weapons, but members do not openly carry arms. Criminal networks, however, do exert influence over Turkmenistan’s criminal markets by engaging in human, drug and arms trafficking, often operating with medium levels of violence. They are particularly widespread in border areas, where they are involved mainly in trafficking activities. Unlike structured mafia-style organizations, these networks function opportunistically and flexibly.

The Turkmenistan government exercises near-total control over all public institutions and economic sectors. In a similar vein, state-embedded actors are deeply entrenched in the country’s criminal activities as well, either organizing or enabling illicit enterprises. The political elite and high-ranking government officials are suspected to be key players in corruption networks, controlling various aspects of illicit financial flows and economic crimes.

Foreign criminal actors have a presence in Turkmenistan’s illicit markets, with significant influence from Uzbek and Afghan diasporas. These groups maintain economic and financial power in the country’s underground economy, contributing to the smuggling of goods, narcotics and arms. Transnational connections between foreign and local criminal networks facilitate the movement of contraband across borders. Although direct foreign-state involvement in organized crime is unclear, non-state actors from neighbouring countries have a role, particularly in illicit trade and smuggling operations.

Private-sector actors in Turkmenistan are implicated in financial crimes and operate in an environment where regulatory oversight is weak and corruption is widespread. Specific details regarding the scale and mechanisms of these crimes are limited, but economic pressures and a lack of enforcement contribute to ongoing illicit financial activities. The blurred distinction between state and private enterprises further complicates efforts to combat financial crime, as many private entities are either controlled by or beholden to state-embedded actors.

Leadership and governance

Turkmenistan has a highly centralized political system dominated by the president, who succeeded his father in 2022. Governance is characterized by an absence of democratic processes, severe restrictions on political rights, and the systematic suppression of opposition. Elections are tightly controlled, with no genuine competition, and state institutions operate under direct presidential authority. The government exerts complete control over the security sector, reinforcing a culture of impunity among law enforcement and state officials. Enforced disappearances, arbitrary detentions and persecution of political dissidents, and often reported, further entrench the state’s repressive rule. Reports of high-level conspiracies and attempted coups reflect tensions within elite circles. Internet blackouts and strict information control hint at state efforts to suppress details of dissent and maintain power. Despite the regime’s grip, internal fractures within elite networks point to the existence of competing factions within the ruling structure.

Turkmenistan faces severe transparency and accountability deficits. Corruption is pervasive across all sectors, including public administration, law enforcement and the judiciary. Patronage networks dominate state institutions, allowing officials to engage in bribery and embezzlement with impunity. Public access to information is severely restricted, and independent oversight mechanisms are absent. Although the government occasionally arrests and prosecutes low-level officials for corruption, these actions are largely symbolic and do not address the entrenched systemic issues. The leadership maintains centralized control over numerous sectors, including the judiciary, with little to no legislative oversight, which further erodes transparency and accountability.

Internationally, Turkmenistan maintains a policy of strict neutrality, limiting its engagement in regional and global efforts to combat organized crime. Despite being a signatory to various international treaties related to trafficking and drug control, enforcement is weak and inconsistent. Cooperation with international organizations is largely superficial, with minimal substantive action taken to implement commitments.

The legal framework nominally criminalizes various forms of organized crime, including human trafficking, drug trafficking and arms smuggling. However, enforcement is inadequate, and gaps persist in key areas such as protections against human smuggling. Despite the adoption of national action plans addressing trafficking and organized crime, implementation remains ineffective owing to systemic corruption and a lack of political will.

Criminal justice and security

Turkmenistan’s judicial system is neither independent nor effective in addressing organized crime. Judges are appointed and dismissed at the president’s discretion, leading to a judiciary that serves the interests of the ruling elite rather than upholding justice. Due process is routinely disregarded, and politically motivated prosecutions are common. Reports indicate that judicial proceedings are opaque, with defendants often denied fair trials and access to legal representation. Turkmenistan’s prison system is notorious for forced disappearances, with the Ovadan Depe prison serving as a primary site where political prisoners, alleged Islamists and individuals accused of conspiring against the state are held without due process. Corruption within prison administration exists, yet the penitentiary system remains firmly under the state control, with no significant influence from criminal actors.

Law enforcement agencies primarily function as instruments of state control rather than as entities focused on combating organized crime. The police and security services are deeply corrupt, frequently engaging in bribery and abuse of power. Although the state maintains strict control over the population through surveillance and repression, efforts to tackle organized crime are minimal.

Territorial integrity is challenging owing to Turkmenistan’s long and porous borders with Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Iran, as well as its Caspian Sea coastline. The country serves as a transit point for narcotics smuggled from Afghanistan to Russia and Europe. Border security is hindered by corruption, with officials reportedly facilitating smuggling activities in exchange for bribes. Despite efforts to strengthen border control, including cooperation with international organizations, enforcement remains inconsistent and are undermined by systemic corruption.

Economic and financial environment

Anti-money laundering measures are weak and poorly enforced. The country has adopted laws and regulations addressing money laundering and terrorist financing, but implementation is inconsistent. Financial institutions lack the capacity and political independence to enforce compliance effectively. Reports suggest that illicit financial flows, including those linked to drug trafficking and state corruption, continue largely unchecked. Although the government has pledged to strengthen regulations to counter money laundering, these efforts remain largely superficial and fail to address the root causes of financial crime.

Turkmenistan’s economy is heavily state controlled, with significant restrictions on private enterprise. The country’s regulatory environment is opaque, with key economic decisions made by a small circle of elites closely tied to the president. Corruption is pervasive in business dealings, and foreign investment is limited owing to regulatory uncertainty and lack of transparency. The absence of transparency in business dealings enables corporate entities to continue exploiting economic loopholes.

Civil society and social protection

Minimal support is available for victims or witnesses of organized crime. The government does not provide adequate services for victims of human trafficking, forced labour or other forms of exploitation. Laws to protect victims do exist, but enforcement is weak, and many victims are treated as criminals rather than receiving assistance. Civil society organizations, where they exist, struggle to provide support owing to government restrictions and a lack of funding.

Prevention efforts are similarly inadequate. The government has implemented some initiatives aimed at raising awareness of human trafficking and drug abuse, but these programmes are often symbolic rather than substantive. Forced labour is a significant issue, particularly in the cotton industry, where state-imposed labour requirements force citizens, including children, to work in harsh conditions. Efforts to combat human trafficking are further undermined by the government’s denial of the problem and its unwillingness to engage meaningfully with international organizations.

Civil society in Turkmenistan is highly restricted, with independent NGOs facing severe limitations on their activities. Human rights organizations and media outlets critical of the government are banned, and activists are frequently subjected to harassment, imprisonment or exile. The internet is heavily censored, and access to independent information is limited. International NGOs have limited access to the country and their operations are tightly controlled by state authorities. Government measures to address cyber threats often double as mechanisms to restrict internet access and suppress civil society, with censorship and bans on virtual private networks impeding digital freedoms.