India

People

India is a source, transit, and destination country for human trafficking, with victims trafficked both domestically and abroad. Indian nationals have been trafficked to destinations within Asia, including Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Malaysia and Nepal, as well as to Armenia, Portugal, Gabon the US, Zambia and Kenya. Maharashtra remains the most affected state, reporting the highest number of trafficking cases. Traffickers frequently use India’s extensive railway network to transport victims. Social media platforms have also become key tools for recruitment, particularly for sexual exploitation in Goa. In addition, cyber scams have been linked to trafficking, with victims lured with false employment offers and forced into labour, particularly in South East Asia. In the Sundarbans, the climate crisis has intensified trafficking risks, as displaced communities, particularly women and children, are targeted with false promises of opportunity. Although challenges persist, the heightened levels of exploitation observed during the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath appear to have declined.

Human smuggling networks operate extensively across India, particularly in border states near Nepal, Bangladesh and Myanmar, as well as in Tamil Nadu. Smugglers facilitate the movement of people into India for employment or onward transit, and enable irregular migration to high-income countries, particularly the United States, via Latin America. Recent trends indicate a rise in the use of dunki routes, a Punjabi term referring to circuitous journeys involving multiple border crossings, especially among young Indian men seeking to migrate westward. Reports also highlight Indian and Russian networks smuggling people to fight in the Russia–Ukraine war and to work cyber-scam operations in South East Asia.

Extortion and protection racketeering remain prevalent in areas where high real estate values, the hospitality and entertainment sectors, and transnational drug trafficking networks intersect, creating lucrative opportunities. However, extortion syndicates are no longer as powerful as in previous years, with law enforcement efforts – particularly in Uttar Pradesh and Punjab – weakening several established criminal gangs. This decline has contributed to a rise in opportunistic extortion by individuals who falsely claim gang affiliations or pose as government officials.

Trade

India is both a source and destination for arms trafficking. A major concern is the use of drones to transport firearms across the India-Pakistan border, with some weapons reportedly originating from Afghanistan. Illegal domestic production persists, particularly of low-cost firearms in artisanal workshops in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. In remote border states such as Manipur, insurgent groups have occasionally raided government arsenals, though many of the stolen weapons have since been recovered. Demand for weapons remains high in Punjab, where firearm possession is associated with social status. Despite increased law enforcement efforts, arms trafficking continues in insurgency-affected areas, including Kashmir and the northeastern states.

The trade in counterfeit goods remains widespread, with a sizeable portion of goods sold in the country falling into this category. Counterfeiting spans pharmaceuticals, alcohol, tobacco and consumer electronics, with Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore serving as key distribution hubs. Both online and physical markets facilitate the sale of counterfeit products, and law enforcement agencies are increasingly using AI-based detection tools to curb the trade. In Delhi, Ghaffar Market is known for counterfeit mobile phones, Kashmiri Gate for automobile parts and Nehru Place for computer accessories. In Hyderabad, the Chenoy Trade Centre and Hong Kong Bazaar are hubs for fake computer hardware and software, while Mumbai’s Heera Panna Market is a major centre for counterfeit watches, footwear and cosmetics. Chennai’s Burma Bazaar is also widely recognized for pirated films and electronic equipment. The widespread use of counterfeit consumer brands in India is often culturally accepted, driven by affordability and accessibility. India is also a major global source of counterfeit goods, especially pharmaceuticals. The country consistently ranks among the top producers of such items, which are frequently seized around the world, with a notable impact in developing countries.

The illicit trade in excise goods, particularly alcohol and tobacco, remains widespread, due to high taxation. This contraband causes significant revenue loss, with smuggling operations linked to organized crime. In some states, prohibition laws have inadvertently fuelled demand in illicit markets. Border seizure data, which reveals large-scale trafficking operations, identifies India as one of the largest markets for illicit cigarettes globally.

Environment

Flora crime is a significant challenge in India, with red sandalwood smuggling to China, Hong Kong and Singapore a major concern. The exploitation of medicinal plants has also intensified, particularly in Jammu and Kashmir, where species such as Paris polyphylla and Saussurea costus are at risk of extinction driven by international demand. In many forested areas, locals and tribal communities collect these plants to repay debts, perpetuating a cycle of debt and illegal harvesting.

Illegal wildlife trafficking is also widespread, with Chennai and Mumbai airports serving as key transit points. Commonly trafficked species include pangolin, seahorse, and tortoise, with illicit online sales playing a growing role in distribution. Experts attribute the increase in trafficking from Indian airports to the rising number of live exotic animals smuggled into the country, making India a key destination for both legal and illegal exotic pets. Wildlife smuggling routes often overlap with broader contraband flows along the Myanmar and Bangladesh borders.

Non-renewable resource crimes are prevalent in India. Illegal sand mining is a multi-billion-dollar industry, controlled by a nexus of politicians, contractors and local officials. The practice is especially widespread in states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Maharashtra, West Bengal and Tamil Nadu, where riverbeds are extensively exploited. Most illegal sand mining occurs in riverine rural areas near urban centres to minimise transportation costs. Gold smuggling is also significant, with Myanmar, Nepal and Sri Lanka serving as key transit points. Recent seizures of large quantities indicate a rise in smuggling via both air and land routes, and estimates suggest that between 200 and 300 tonnes of gold are smuggled into the country annually. Organized crime networks dominate the coal sector, particularly in Jharkhand, where illicit mining is deeply entrenched despite intensified enforcement efforts.

Drugs

India is a major destination and transit country for heroin, with key entry points along the Pakistan and Myanmar borders. Although Afghan opium production has declined, trafficking is still active, with large maritime shipments regularly intercepted off the coast of Gujarat. The country faces an escalating drug trafficking crisis as international syndicates exploit its porous borders. Trafficking continues to rise, despite record-breaking seizures particularly in border states such as Punjab, Gujarat and West Bengal. Myanmar has become an increasingly important source of heroin, with major seizures also reported in northeastern Indian cities such as Guwahati and Dimapur. While domestic heroin production is limited, adulterated variants such as ‘brown sugar’ are manufactured in Manipur. Although heroin trafficking remains high, the emergence of synthetic drugs and shifting supply chains have contributed to rising heroin prices and a decline in addiction rates in some parts of the country.

The cocaine trade in India remains stable and limited, primarily concentrated in urban centres such as Mumbai and Delhi. African and Latin American traffickers continue to use both air and maritime routes to smuggle the drug into the country. A shift towards smuggling cocaine in liquid form has emerged, as it is harder to detect than conventional powder. Evidence suggests that foreign syndicates have established partnerships with chemists and laboratories in India to extract dissolved cocaine from lotions and alcohol-based solutions.

Cannabis, widely cultivated in India, is trafficked both domestically and internationally. States such as Himachal Pradesh and Odisha are key production hubs, with organized crime groups controlling distribution networks. Although cannabis is legally cultivated for medicinal purposes, illicit trade persists, particularly where farmers grow it without state approval. Trafficking from Nepal into India also occurs, though on a smaller scale.

The trafficking of synthetic drugs, including methamphetamine and amphetamine-type stimulants, is increasing, with the northeast now a major transit corridor. Criminal networks use India both as a transit point and, in some cases, a source country for synthetic drugs destined for international markets, particularly in Australia and Europe. As the world's largest producer of generic pharmaceuticals, India’s chemical supply chain has been exploited by criminal actors for drug manufacturing. India-based online pharmacies also play a major role in distributing synthetic drugs globally, with Europe, North America and Africa among the primary destinations. While local demand is growing, synthetic drug use is largely concentrated in urban areas.

Cyber Crimes

Cyber-dependent crime is widespread in India, marked by increasingly sophisticated threats such as ransomware attacks and data breaches. As the country undergoes rapid digitization, the expansion of digital services has introduced new vulnerabilities, leaving individuals, businesses and critical infrastructure exposed to a growing range of cyber threats. Although reported incidents have surged, the true scale of cyber-dependent crime is likely underestimated due to persistent underreporting and the frequent conflation with cyber-enabled offences. A substantial share of cybercrime is believed to originate from abroad – particularly from China, Cambodia and Myanmar – contributing to a complex and transnational threat environment. State-linked cyber-espionage groups have also targeted India and its neighbours, focusing on sensitive sectors through advanced, cloud-based operations. While steps have been taken to strengthen law enforcement capacity and improve reporting mechanisms, significant challenges remain in addressing the evolving nature of cyber-dependent threats and in accurately capturing their full scope.

Financial Crimes

Financial crimes – particularly financial fraud, identity theft and phishing – are growing concerns in India, with metropolitan areas such as Delhi, Mumbai and Chennai among the most targeted. Cyber-enabled financial scams linked to digital payment platforms have risen sharply, often targeting vulnerable groups such as the elderly and homemakers with low levels of financial literacy. Counterfeit currency has also posed a challenge, though its circulation has declined in recent years. Most counterfeit notes have historically originated from Pakistan, but demonetization and increased public awareness have helped reduce the problem. Nevertheless, authorities continue to monitor smuggling routes through Nepal and Bangladesh.

Criminal Actors

Mafia-style groups in India are a lot less influential than they were in the 1990s, when these entities exerted substantial control over various sectors. The most notable example is the decline of the Mumbai mafia, particularly D-Company, due to sustained law enforcement efforts and changing socio-economic conditions. Although remnants remain, their ability to dominate local economies and industries has diminished considerably. Many extortion threats are issued via encrypted platforms. Members based abroad typically coordinate attacks, which are then carried out by associates temporarily present in the country. These activities are particularly concentrated in Delhi, where international connectivity facilitates movement. Despite these developments, no mafia-style group holds dominance today. Most criminal organizations operate either at a local scale or rely on international safe havens. The rise of Khalistan-associated gangs has added further complexity to the landscape, although their operations remain relatively contained. Criminal networks typically have fluid, opportunistic structures and are most active in sectors tied to natural resources, such as sand mining, timber extraction and the illicit liquor trade. These groups exploit weak regulatory oversight and frequently develop symbiotic relationships with local officials, who either ignore their activities or actively facilitate them. So-called sand mafias, for example, are deeply entrenched in the construction industry, benefiting from political protection and the capacity to intimidate competitors. While some of these networks engage in overtly illegal activities such as extortion and environmental destruction, others operate in legal grey areas, using corrupt practices to secure market monopolies. Law enforcement occasionally targets violent actors, particularly those involved in drug and arms trafficking in regions such as Punjab and Mumbai. However, non-violent networks often thrive due to their integration into the broader economic system.

State involvement in organized crime in India varies widely depending on the criminal market. While the judiciary remains largely uncompromised and high-level police collusion with criminal groups is limited, low-level corruption among government officials continues to facilitate illicit activities. In sectors such as illegal mining, excise violations and poaching, officials may ignore, enable or even actively participate in criminal operations. The most significant systemic vulnerability lies in political corruption. Criminal elements have increasingly infiltrated electoral politics, with a substantial proportion of legislators facing criminal charges. While not all of these cases relate to organized crime, the overlap between politics and illicit financial networks is a persistent concern. Reports have also highlighted instances where gang leaders appear to operate with impunity, suggesting high-level political protection in some cases. A recent investigation into pandemic-era procurement in Karnataka revealed widespread corruption across multiple government departments, reinforcing concerns about the complicity of state actors in financial crime.

There is evidence of foreign criminal actors operating in India, although their overall impact remains limited. People from African countries have occasionally been involved in heroin trafficking, while Pakistani elements are suspected of facilitating arms and narcotics smuggling via maritime routes. China has also been linked to providing indirect support to insurgent groups operating in India’s northeastern states. Goa, in particular, has long attracted foreign criminal activity, with reports of Romanian nationals involved in financial fraud. Afghan nationals have also been linked to heroin trafficking networks, while women from Central Asian countries have been trafficked into India for sexual exploitation, indicating the transnational nature of these criminal networks.

The private sector plays a significant role in facilitating organized crime in India, especially in the real estate, extractive, and financial sectors. In Delhi and the National Capital Region, the real estate industry has faced allegations of a so-called builder mafia controlling land development through coercion and political influence. However, such claims are often politically charged, making it difficult to assess the true extent of criminal involvement. In the extractive sector, including mining, there have been instances where environmental protection laws were weakened or circumvented to benefit large corporations, sometimes with the complicity of state actors. Private security firms have reportedly been used to conceal illegal mining activities in remote areas. Although collusion between large corporations and organized crime is difficult to prove, the overlap between political patronage, business interests and illicit financial flows continues to challenge India’s regulatory landscape.

Leadership and governance

India’s political leadership and governance reflect a complex mix of strengths and challenges. While the country maintains a multiparty democratic system, the government has faced scrutiny over its record on civil liberties and institutional transparency. The ruling Bharatiya Janata Party controls a significant number of state governments, resulting in a more centralized approach to security and law enforcement. Efforts to combat organized crime have included the implementation of stringent policies, particularly in states with a strong criminal presence. However, some measures have drawn criticism for disproportionately affecting certain communities and targeting political opponents. The government has also launched a ‘drug-free India’ initiative, aiming to achieve this goal by 2047, with programmes such as the Seizure Information Management System introduced to track drug-related offences. While these efforts demonstrate political will, concerns remain about the selective enforcement of anti-crime measures and the potential use of investigations for political purposes.

Transparency and accountability remain areas of concern in India’s governance framework. The Right to Information Act provides a legal basis for public oversight, enabling citizens to request access to government records. However, recent amendments reducing the tenure of information commissioners have raised concerns about the weakening of these mechanisms. The Lokpal, an anti-corruption body, was established to investigate corruption within government institutions, but its effectiveness has been limited, largely due to bureaucratic inefficiencies.

India actively participates in international efforts to combat organized crime. It is a signatory to multiple international treaties, including the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the UN Convention against Corruption. India also plays a leading role in regional frameworks such as the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation, as well as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), in efforts to address transnational crime and terrorism and to promote regional integration and economic cooperation. Extradition treaties and cooperation with agencies such as INTERPOL have enhanced India’s ability to pursue fugitives. However, limitations in compelling international cooperation persist, and the country continues to rely on multilateral platforms for intelligence sharing and legal coordination.

Domestically, India has enacted several laws and policies to address organized crime, including recent updates to the Indian penal and criminal procedure codes. These reforms expand provisions targeting organized crime and improve investigative procedures. India has also introduced notable regulatory changes related to cybersecurity, artificial intelligence and data privacy. India has also established a comprehensive framework to combat counterfeit goods, including a national Intellectual Property Rights policy, specialized enforcement mechanisms, consumer awareness campaigns and legal provisions involving courts and e-commerce platforms. While these developments signal progress, enforcement capacity remains a key challenge, particularly in light of judicial backlogs and resource constraints within law enforcement.

Criminal justice and security

India’s judicial system faces structural challenges that hinder its ability to effectively combat organized crime. High court vacancies along with an extensive backlog of cases contribute to delays in prosecuting criminal offences. Technological reforms – such as the digitization of legal records and the introduction of electronic first information reports – aim to expedite judicial processes, but resource constraints and procedural inefficiencies continue to limit their impact. Prisons in India are overcrowded, and corruption within correctional facilities remains a concern. Some organized crime figures continue to run extortion and smuggling operations from inside prison, highlighting gaps in prison management and security.

Law enforcement in India operates within a complex framework of national and state-level agencies. The country has one of the lowest police-to-population ratios among G20 nations, posing significant challenges to crime prevention. Specialized agencies such as the narcotics control bureau, the research and analysis wing, and the intelligence bureau play an important role in countering organized crime. Coordination among these agencies has improved in recent years, contributing to successful operations against drug trafficking and cybercrime. However, overall effectiveness remains constrained by police force vacancies, resource limitations, and instances of corruption.

Maintaining territorial integrity presents unique challenges for India due to its extensive land and maritime borders. The border security force, Indo-Tibetan border police, and Assam Rifles are responsible for securing the country’s borders, while the Indian navy and coast guard oversee coastal security. Cross-border trafficking of narcotics, arms, and people remains a concern, particularly along the borders with Myanmar and Bangladesh. Although surveillance technology and fencing have improved border control, corruption among local officials occasionally enables illegal cross-border activities.

Economic and financial environment

India has implemented several measures to combat money laundering, with the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) serving as the primary legislative tool. The enforcement directorate plays a central role in investigating financial crimes, with a notable increase in cases registered under the PMLA. Amendments to the law have expanded its scope, introducing provisions to target individuals and entities involved in illicit financial activity. Digital payment reforms and improved financial surveillance have also enhanced transaction transparency. However, the conviction rate for financial crimes remains low, and challenges persist in tracking and prosecuting large-scale offences, raising concerns about the overall effectiveness of enforcement.

India’s economic regulatory environment shows mixed performance. The country ranks in the lower tier of global business freedom indices, with bureaucratic inefficiencies and regulatory complexity hindering investment. Corruption and administrative delays continue to pose challenges for businesses, particularly in sectors such as real estate and extractive industries. While the government has introduced reforms to streamline business regulations and improve contract enforcement, systemic structural weaknesses undermine economic resilience to organized crime.

Civil society and social protection

India lacks a comprehensive national framework for victim and witness protection. Current safeguards are limited, and while compensation schemes exist – allowing states to allocate funds for victims of crime – implementation is inconsistent. Those seeking support often face significant bureaucratic hurdles. Human trafficking victims receive some assistance through government-funded programmes, but delays in compensation payments and limited service availability remain concerns. Nevertheless, efforts to support drug users in India have been strengthened through recent legal and policy developments that emphasize a more rehabilitative approach to drug use. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, as the nodal authority for drug demand reduction, implements the flagship National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction, which funds a broad range of treatment and rehabilitation initiatives, including support for de-addiction centres and treatment facilities. In parallel, new criminal procedure laws are encouraging states to establish their own witness protection measures. Notably, the Ministry has also proposed a shift in framing – advocating for individuals caught with small quantities of drugs to be treated as ‘victims’ rather than offenders, reinforcing a health- and rights-based approach to substance use.

Efforts to prevent organized crime are largely sector-specific rather than part of a unified national strategy. India has implemented anti-trafficking awareness campaigns, particularly in border regions, and taken steps to regulate illicit industries such as sand mining. Civil society organizations are active in prevention, often working with law enforcement to provide intelligence and assist with victim rescue operations. However, limited state coordination and a lack of overarching policy coherence continue to hinder broader crime prevention.

Non-state actors, including media organizations and civil society groups, face increasing restrictions in India. Press freedom is constrained, with government agencies conducting raids on media professionals and organizations – raising concerns about political interference and reportedly leading to legal action and harassment against journalists investigating organized crime and corruption. Additionally, restrictions on foreign funding and official registration have limited the operational capacity of civil society organizations. Despite these challenges, India has a robust network of NGOs engaged in human rights advocacy, victim support and anti-trafficking initiatives. However, legal and financial constraints hinder their effectiveness, particularly as regulatory pressures have intensified in recent years.