Afghanistan

People

Afghanistan remains a significant source country for human trafficking. Afghan nationals, particularly children, are trafficked to neighbouring countries such as Pakistan and Iran for forced labour and sexual exploitation. Domestically, trafficking is widespread, with victims subjected to forced labour, sexual exploitation, and other abuses. Vulnerable groups include women, children, ethnic and religious minorities and LGBTQI+ people. The country’s prolonged instability, high poverty rates and lack of economic opportunities contribute to widespread exploitation. Reports indicate that children are forced to work in sectors such as carpet weaving, mining, drug smuggling and poppy cultivation. The practice of bacha bazi (the sexual exploitation of boys) persists, and children continue to be unlawfully recruited into armed groups. Taliban policies, particularly restrictions on female education and employment, have further increased the vulnerability of women and girls to trafficking.

Human smuggling is widespread in Afghanistan, driven by poverty, displacement and political uncertainty. Taliban control over key smuggling routes has facilitated the trade, with Afghan nationals seeking passage to Iran, Pakistan and beyond. Smuggling networks operating within Afghanistan extend as far as Türkiye and Europe, and some reports suggest Taliban-affiliated groups are involved in managing operations in Serbia. Those attempting to flee dire conditions face serious risks, including exploitation, fatal accidents and involvement in other illicit markets such as drug and arms trafficking. The ongoing deportation of Afghan refugees from Pakistan and Iran has further intensified demand for smuggling services.

Extortion and protection racketeering is prevalent in Afghanistan and this illicit market is a significant revenue source for criminal groups. The Taliban has long used extortion tactics, including taxing businesses, NGOs, and international donors, to fund its operations. Since returning to power in 2021, these practices have been formalized and incorporated into both existing and newly established taxation systems. Nonetheless, businesses, legal trade sectors and individuals remain vulnerable to extortion by former warlords and other powerful actors seeking financial gain. These practices continue to undermine Afghanistan’s fragile economy and contribute to persistent instability.

Trade

Afghanistan has long served as a hub for arms trafficking, with criminal networks, state actors and terrorist groups deeply involved in the trade. The country’s vast, porous borders and history of weapons stockpiling make it both a source and transit point for illicit arms. Smuggling routes run through key provinces such as Nangarhar and Nimroz, extending into Pakistan and Iran. A wide range of weapons is trafficked, from assault rifles to military-grade equipment. Although the Taliban has announced efforts to curb arms trafficking, including confiscations and public condemnations, some elements within the group are reportedly still engaged in weapons sales. Arms from past conflicts and legacy stockpiles continue to cross borders, with some reaching militant groups.

The trade in counterfeit goods is well established, with Afghanistan functioning as both a destination and transit hub for counterfeit pharmaceuticals, food products, clothing and electronic items. Criminal groups and mafia-style networks are active within this market, often sourcing these products from China and Pakistan. Corruption and weak regulatory frameworks enable the trade, which poses serious public health and financial risks. The Taliban has taken steps to curb imports through regular seizures, particularly of low-quality medical supplies from Pakistan, but enforcement is inconsistent.

The illicit trade in excise consumer goods – particularly tobacco – is widespread in Afghanistan, which serves as both a primary destination and a key distribution point for smuggled cigarettes. Local demand for illicit tobacco is high, with anecdotal estimates indicating that most cigarettes consumed in the country are illegal. These products are primarily trafficked via Pakistan and Iran and are further routed to markets across Central Asia. The Torkham border near Nangarhar is a key hub for small-scale operations, often involving children transporting tobacco, electronics and other excisable items. Tensions between the Taliban and Pakistan have disrupted trade flows, prompting a shift in illicit commerce towards Iran and Central Asia.

Environment

Flora crime, including illegal logging for both fuel and export, is a significant concern in Afghanistan. So-called timber mafias exert strong influence over local communities, exploiting poverty by coercing people into unsustainable logging practices. Despite Taliban-imposed bans, illegal logging continues, particularly in border provinces. Smuggled timber is frequently transported to Pakistan, where it is laundered into legal supply chains. Weak governance and local-level corruption have enabled the ongoing exploitation of Afghanistan’s forests, contributing to widespread environmental degradation.

Fauna crime, such as the poaching and trafficking of endangered species, has expanded in recent years due to poor enforcement and sustained demand. Afghanistan’s wildlife, including snow leopards and falcons, is targeted for smuggling to Gulf countries, where wealthy buyers drive demand. The Taliban's role adds complexity, as the group has both prohibited and facilitated this trade. Reports suggest that local Taliban commanders have permitted foreign hunters to engage in illegal hunting activities, further hindering enforcement.

Non-renewable resource crime, particularly illegal mining, remains lucrative, exploited by various actors, including the Taliban. Afghanistan’s vast reserves of gold, lithium and other minerals are subject to widespread illicit extraction. While the Taliban has signed formal agreements with foreign entities, particularly China, to regulate mining, informal and illicit operations persist. Smuggled minerals, including lithium, have been seized en route to Pakistan, raising concerns about transnational trafficking networks.

Drugs

The heroin trade has historically dominated Afghanistan’s illicit economy, with opium production serving as a key revenue source for organized crime. The Taliban’s 2022 ban on opium cultivation led to a reported 95% decline in poppy farming However, existing opium stockpiles suggest that trafficking activity continues. These enforcement efforts have driven up heroin prices, benefiting those with access to stockpiles. Trafficking networks remain active, using established routes through Pakistan, Iran and Türkiye. Although enforcement efforts have resulted in large-scale seizures, corruption, inconsistent regulation and farmers’ economic reliance on opium cultivation continue to undermine policy implementation and long-term market reduction. By contrast, cocaine trafficking is virtually non-existent in Afghanistan, with no significant evidence of a domestic market.

The cannabis trade is robust, with Afghanistan historically recognized as a major producer of hashish. Although the Taliban has imposed bans on cannabis cultivation, enforcement appears selective, particularly in eastern provinces. Criminal networks involved in the hashish trade often operate alongside heroin traffickers, using similar smuggling routes. Domestic consumption is high, and external demand continues to drive cultivation despite official prohibitions.

Synthetic drug production, especially methamphetamine, has expanded in recent years. Manufacturing based on the Ephedra plant has grown significantly, with large seizures reported in both domestic and international markets. While the Taliban officially banned meth production in 2022, its ongoing prevalence suggests continued involvement by criminal networks. Methamphetamine trafficking now extends beyond the region to Western Asia, Europe and South East Asia, highlighting the growing reach of this market.

Cyber Crimes

Cyber-dependent crime, including hacking and malware attacks, have increased in Afghanistan, targeting financial institutions and government systems. Weak cybersecurity infrastructure and limited enforcement capacity continue to allow criminal actors to exploit these vulnerabilities.

Financial Crimes

Financial crime, including embezzlement and donation fraud, continues to undermine Afghanistan’s economy. The Taliban’s control over financial institutions has increased scrutiny of international aid, amid reports of funds siphoned through fraudulent NGOs and coercive tactics used to redirect aid. Corruption remains deeply entrenched, compounding financial instability. The counterfeit currency market also remains active, further weakening the country’s already fragile economy. Furthermore, the imposition of international sanctions on Afghan banks has prompted the rise of alternative financial channels, including regional banking arrangements and informal systems like hawala. Although these mechanisms help maintain the flow of transactions, they also complicate efforts to monitor financial activities and enforce measures against financial crimes.

Criminal Actors

Before the Taliban’s return to power in 2021, certain factions within the group, along with familial and tribal-based criminal organizations, functioned in a hierarchical structure akin to mafia-style groups. Since the takeover, some have been integrated into the Taliban-led government and are now classified as state-embedded actors. Other non-Taliban structures remain active in illicit markets such as drug trafficking and arms smuggling. These groups often maintain strong tribal affiliations, enabling them to act with minimal interference. Competition between criminal organizations, including remnants of former militia groups, also persists, contributing to localized violence and instability.

Afghanistan is also home to loosely structured criminal networks engaged in a range of illicit activities, including drug trafficking, human smuggling and extortion. These networks frequently operate under informal agreements with senior Taliban elements seeking financial resources, resulting in overlap between state actors and criminal enterprises. Cross-border ties further enable these operations, with Afghan networks collaborating with international actors involved in money laundering, arms trafficking and drug smuggling.

While the Taliban has positioned itself as an anti-corruption force, it continues to rely on illicit markets for financial support. Various Taliban factions – particularly local commanders and ministry officials – have been linked to organized criminal activity. Reports suggest that people formerly involved in drug trafficking now hold official roles under the current administration. Internal divisions and financial pressures within the government have further enabled state officials to exploit their positions for personal gain.

Foreign actors – particularly from neighbouring Pakistan – play a significant and entrenched role in Afghanistan’s criminal landscape, operating fluidly across the porous border between the two countries. Deep-rooted cultural ties, historical policy dynamics and economic interdependence have created a cross-border environment that facilitates both licit and illicit activities. Criminal networks, especially those in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, exploit widespread poverty and the vulnerabilities of marginalized communities, including Afghan refugees. These groups use a range of smuggling methods – such as couriers on foot, pack animals, trucks at official crossings, and concealment through the garment trade – while also resorting to the exploitation of children as drug carriers. Meanwhile, Afghanistan’s role as a major opium producer continues to attract international criminal networks, with actors from Central Asia and Pakistan deeply involved in trafficking Afghan narcotics to global markets. The country also remains of interest to foreign extremist groups, despite efforts by current authorities to curtail their presence. Together, these dynamics underscore the deeply embedded, transnational nature of organized crime in and around Afghanistan, and the challenges in countering it.

The Afghan private sector is predominantly informal, with legal businesses and criminal enterprises often operating alongside one another. Reports suggest that nearly 80% of the country’s economic activity occurs outside formal regulatory structures, making it difficult to assess the full extent of private-sector involvement in organized crime. The economic crisis and ongoing sanctions have further constrained the formal economy, pushing many businesses to rely on illicit activities like money laundering and informal financial services such as hawala networks. Moreover, the extensive state involvement in the private sector makes it difficult to distinguish between state actors and private-sector actors.

Leadership and governance

Afghanistan's political landscape remains fragile under the Taliban's de facto rule, marked by limited governance capacity and the absence of democratic institutions. Since assuming power in 2021, the Taliban have consolidated authority by abolishing electoral processes and dismantling institutions responsible for human rights oversight. Nevertheless, the Taliban regime has also claimed to take steps to curb certain criminal markets, including efforts to reduce poppy cultivation, combat arms trafficking and address environmental crimes such as illegal logging and unregulated mining. The regime claims to have curbed corruption, but transparency and accountability mechanisms are virtually non-existent. Governance structures prioritize ideological loyalty over institutional efficiency, contributing to administrative opacity. Efforts to secure international recognition have been met with resistance, despite several nations maintaining diplomatic engagement.

Government transparency has also declined significantly, with public access to financial and budgetary information restricted. The elimination of independent oversight bodies, such as the Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission, the Independent Election Commission and the Electoral Complaints Commission has further weakened accountability. The Taliban's control of digital identification databases has also raised concerns about the potential misuse of personal data for surveillance and coercion. While reports indicate decreased corruption in revenue collection, the absence of independent verification casts doubt on these claims.

Despite Afghanistan’s formal adherence to international agreements, including the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, government compliance with these frameworks is inconsistent. The Taliban selectively engage with international actors, prioritizing economic assistance while rejecting external pressure on human rights and governance reforms. Regional cooperation is largely driven by economic and security interests, with neighbouring countries such as China, Russia and Pakistan maintaining diplomatic ties. However, international sanctions and the withholding of Afghanistan’s financial assets have further isolated the country and are exacerbating economic instability.

Afghanistan's legal framework has undergone significant transformation, with the Taliban dismantling many of the legal structures established under the previous government and the Supreme Court declaring laws from the Republic era no longer valid. The country’s legal system is heavily influenced by Islamic law, with decrees issued by the Taliban’s Supreme Leader serving as the primary source of governance. While some laws related to organized crime, financial regulation and drug trafficking remain in place, enforcement is inconsistent. A committee within the Afghanistan National Academy is reviewing existing laws for compliance with Sharia, creating uncertainty in legal interpretation and judicial proceedings. The Taliban have announced efforts to regulate illicit markets, including bans on opium and cannabis cultivation, illegal mining and logging. However, enforcement mechanisms remain weak, and illicit economic activity reportedly continues. The absence of a formal constitution deepens legal uncertainty, as governance is dictated by Taliban-issued edicts rather than a standardized legal system.

Criminal justice and security

There is minimal institutional continuity between the former government and the current Taliban-led judicial system. Judges and legal personnel have been replaced by Taliban members; most lack formal legal training. Public prosecutors have been removed, and legal proceedings often rely on swift, summary adjudications. The absence of an independent judiciary has raised widespread concerns about arbitrary rulings and human rights violations, particularly in relation to women and minority groups. The Taliban Supreme Court has rejected the former government’s legal framework, replacing it with Taliban-issued edicts.

Law enforcement operations are now fully controlled by Taliban fighters, who have transitioned into policing roles. Many former officers either fled or were dismissed after the regime change. The Taliban’s law enforcement structure is relatively more organized and has shown effectiveness in addressing certain forms of organized crime. However, the autonomy granted to enforcement personnel in applying regulations, combined with a lack of accountability, has led to serious instances of police misconduct, including human rights violations and abuses of power.

Afghanistan’s territorial integrity faces persistent challenges due to its complex geography and shared borders with China, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Rugged terrain and weak border management hinder effective monitoring, facilitating the movement of people and goods, as well as trafficking, smuggling and other illicit activity. Since the Taliban takeover, tensions with Pakistan have escalated, with reports of airstrikes inside Afghan territory. In response, the Taliban have launched ground offensives and fired rockets at Pakistani border posts. Meanwhile, non-state actors such as the ISKP continue to challenge Taliban authority, compounding internal security threats.

Economic and financial environment

Efforts to combat money laundering are undermined by the absence of a functional financial intelligence framework. Afghanistan's former financial transactions and reports analysis centre is no longer operational, creating a regulatory vacuum in anti-money laundering enforcement. Illicit financial flows continue through the hawala system and unregulated financial institutions, increasing the level of vulnerability. The Taliban’s engagement with the international financial system is limited, with many banking restrictions still in effect.

The country’s economic landscape is characterized by financial isolation and structural weaknesses. Following the takeover, international aid – previously accounting for 40% of the country’s GDP – was significantly curtailed. Sanctions and the freezing of central bank assets have further exacerbated the downturn. While the Taliban have sought to increase domestic revenue collection, recovery has been slow. The private sector faces challenges driven by insecurity, weak institutions and limited access to banking services. Land and property rights remain contentious, with ongoing reports of forced displacement and unlawful seizure.

Civil society and social protection

Victim and witness support mechanisms have largely collapsed under Taliban rule. Shelters for victims of trafficking and gender-based violence have been shut down, and NGOs report severe restrictions on their operations. The Taliban’s approach to drug addiction treatment has been marked by forced rehabilitation, with limited medical support for withdrawal. The absence of formal victim identification procedures raises concerns that trafficking victims may be detained or punished rather than offered protection. Preventive measures against organized crime have essentially been eliminated due to the dismantling of institutions previously dedicated to combating corruption and financial crime.

Afghanistan’s civil society has been severely constrained under Taliban rule, with journalists, activists and human rights defenders facing increased persecution. The closure of independent media outlets and limits on press freedom have stifled public discourse, while Taliban control of digital communications has raised further concerns about surveillance and the silencing of independent voices. The country’s media environment remains one of the most restrictive globally, with censorship and intimidation tactics preventing independent reporting. Widespread intimidation, arbitrary detention and violence against civil society actors have also been reported, while the suppression of women’s rights organizations and education advocacy groups has further eroded civic engagement. International organizations continue to operate under difficult conditions, with limited capacity to challenge government policy.